Sultanate of Oman: Resistant to Violent Extremism?

• Název práce v češtině: Ománský sultanát: Odolný vůči násilnému extremismu?
• Název v anglickém jazyce: Sultanate of Oman: Resistant to Violent Extremism?
• Klíčová slova: Omán, terorismus, radikalizace, extremismus, mír, stabilita
• Klíčová slova anglicky: Oman, Terrorism, Radicalization, Extremism, Peace, Stability
• Akademický rok vypsání: 2016/2017
• Typ práce: diplomová práce
• Jazyk práce: angličtina
• Ústav: Katedra bezpečnostních studií (23-KBS)
• Vedoucí / školitel: prof. Mgr. Oldřich Bureš, Ph.D., M.A.
• Řešitel: skrytý - zadáno vedoucím/školitelem
• Datum přihlášení: 08.06.2017
• Datum zadání: 08.06.2017
• Datum a čas obhajoby: 22.06.2018 13:00
• Místo konání obhajoby: Jinonice - U Kříže 8, Praha 5, J3095, Jinonice - místn. č.3095
• Datum odevzdání elektronické podoby: 14.05.2018
• Datum proběhlé obhajoby: 22.06.2018
• Oponenti: Mgr. Jakub Záhora, Ph.D.

Seznam odborné literatury

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Předběžná náplň práce

V této práci analyzujeme odolnost Sultanátu Omán vůči násilnému extremismu jakožto blízkovýchodní země, jíž Index globálního terorismu (GTI) pravidelně přiděluje hodnocení "0". Index globálního terorismu provádí hodnocení globálního terorismu od roku 2003 dále; Sultanát Omán byl v těchto letech stabilní a v indexu GTI se nevyskytoval. Tato případová studie zkoumá institucionální a právní rámec Sultanátu a jejich význam pro potlačování radikalizace a extremismu, které mohou vést k teroristickým činům. Tento výzkum se opírá o literaturu představující modely radikalizace a boje proti násilnému extremismu, se zaměřením na komplexní práci pojednávající o zásadních problémech Blízkého východu. Vzhledem k tomu, že radikalizace a extremismus často vznikají v bouřlivém prostředí, je cílem srovnat tyto problémy se strategiemi, přístupy a normami Sultanátu Omán. Případová studie předkládá závěry ohledně schopnosti Ománu a jeho odolnosti vůči radikálním řešením a extremistickým ideologiím. Jelikož jádrem manipulace a vzájemného obviňování bývá často náboženství, je důležitou součástí této studie i náboženská doktrína Ománu. Obyvatelé Ománu jsou převážně členy Ibádíji, islámské sekty, a mají hluboce zakořeněné společenské a právní normy.

Předběžná náplň práce v anglickém jazyce

Bibliographic Note

CAPUTO, Alexandria. The Sultanate of Oman: Resistant to Extremism?. 104 p. Master Thesis. Charles University, Faculty of Social Sciences, Institute of Political Science. Supervisor : Prof. Oldřich Bureš

Abstract
This thesis analyses the Sultanate resistance to violent extremism as a Middle Eastern nation that has consistently scored a "0" on the Global Terrorism Index (GTI), an ongoing indexing of global terrorism from 2003 onwards. The Sultanate was markedly stable for those years unaccounted by the GTI. This case study examines institutional and legal frameworks established by the Sultanate and their value on countering radicalization and extremism processes that might lead to an act of terrorism. This research is supported by literature on radicalization and countering violent extremism (CVE) models, with great focus on a five-pronged, comprehensive working paper that approaches major problems across the Middle East. Radicalization and extremism notably fester in such problematic approaches, and the objective is to parallel these problems with the strategies, approaches, and norms of the Sultanate of Oman to see if this paper can come to a conclusion about the ability of nations and their populations to resist radical pathways and extremist ideologies. With religion at the crux of manipulation and blame-games, the religious doctrine of Oman also becomes a vital component of this study. Ibadism, a sect of Islam, is widely practiced in Oman and its' tenants are deeply rooted in social and legal qualities.
Title: The Sultanate of Oman: Resistant to Violent Extremism?

Research Question: How does the implementation of institutional and legal frameworks established by the Sultanate of Oman contribute to countering radicalization and deterring terrorism?

Table of Contents
i. INTRODUCTION
- Research Question
- Significance of this Study
- Research Methodologies
- Structure 14
- Limitations of Extremist Studies in Oman
I. CHAPTER ONE: LITERATURE REVIEW ON RADICALIZATION MODELS AND COUNTERING VIOLENT EXTREMISM MODELS 21
- Radicalization into Violent Extremism (RVE)
- Countering Violent Extremism (CVE)
- Conclusions
II. CHAPTER TWO: LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKS
- Introduction
- Legal Frameworks
- Institutional Frameworks
- Conclusions
III. CHAPTER THREE: EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
- Middle East Strategic Assessment
- Oman: An In-Depth Focus
ii. Conclusions
- CONCLUSIONS
- TABLE OF FIGURES
- BIBLIOGRAPHY


(i) Introduction
ia. History
Rule of the Sultan
o 1970 Coup D’état: Qaboos overthrew his father from power in a coup d’état on 23 July 1970, which was a success
Sultan Qaboos seizes the opportunity to construct a stable society
Welcomed in Muscat; countrymen eager for change
Needed to pursue socio-economic developments
Resulted in the total unification of country (from Imam and Sultan, to under one Sultan) that has persisted
A new government essentially created from scratch
o Power & authority mostly in the hands of the Sultan
Authority has come largely uncontested beside 2 episodes of unrest
o Common issues and contestation arising from large families and relatives do not apply in Oman, as Sultan Qaboos was the only son of his father and he has no children himself. Succession will not follow the obvious pattern.
o Lines of authority are hierarchical; individual ministers responsible directly to the sultan; supreme committees

ib Significance of Study:
. Oman is the only Middle Eastern nation to have scored a “0” on the Global Terrorism Index having no impact from terrorism in regards to incidents, fatalities, injuries or property
• Deep focus on nation-building; awareness of nationals regarding the terrorist situation
• Religious attitudes are enforced by a stable society promising of growth
Having ultimately created a government from scratch in the 1970s, the institutional and legal frameworks established by Sultan Qaboos may serve as a model for the Arab world struggling with radicalization and violent extremism

ic. Research Question: How have the institutional and legal frameworks established by the Sultanate of Oman contributed to countering of radicalization?

id. Research Methodologies:
What does this thesis argument require? Requires in-depth knowledge and understanding of the laws and norms enforced in Oman, as well as religious norms and doctrines that support legal understanding of legal decrees by citizens.
From a qualitative Approach:
• Analysis of institutional frameworks (ministries, religion & mosques/Ibadism/Sharia, universities, etc.)
• Analysis of legal frameworks (Royal Decrees, Laws, etc.)
• Analysis of religious norms set by Ibadism (Oman is the only nation to practice this sect as a majority)
o Legal and religious leaders; university students and external providers (?)
ie. Limitations
• Accepted or concrete definitions; potential ambiguity between terms such as radicalism, radicalization, extremism, violent extremism, etc.
o There have been no known cases of radicalization or extremist acts occurring within the Sultanate of Oman but the precision of data is an obstacle to confirming this statement
o The Sultanate cannot gather definite information regarding data if there was ever a case of radicalization that culminated from within the country
o Unknown factors concerning actors in the Yemeni Civil War
Empirical studies on radicalization are rare despite a surge in publications post-2001
Acknowledgement of the human rights situation in Oman through further analysis of legal rights and its subsequent effect on countering and deterring terrorism.
o Ambiguity between the state of peace and its correlation with human rights (problems of).
• Lack of empirical research regarding radicalization and countering violent extremism
• Lack of CVE and radicalization models pertinent to Oman, as well as the general non-existence of experience and literature on the Sultanate

(1) Chapter 1: Literature Review on Radicalization:
1.1 Key Models of Radicalization
A. Radicalization into Violent Extremism I: A Review of Social Science Theories – Borum
• A Review of Definitions and Applications of Social Science Theories
o A successful CVE must attempt to stem the tide of new radicalization
o Defining the Problem: Little consensus on what radicalism and extremism even meant; how we define threat has implications on our understanding and how to address it
o Defining the problem of radicalization: Struggle with boundaries
• Potentially promising theory:
o Social Movement Theory
o Conversion Theory

B. Radicalization into Violent Extremism II: Review of Conceptual Models and Empirical Research – Borum
• Conceptual models of radicalization into violent extremism
o 3 steps to a terrorist mindset: grievance, injustice, target attribution, distancing/devaluation
o Staircase to terrorism
o Precht’s model of a typical radicalization pattern
• Recent empirical research on radicalization:
o Knowledge development achieved through science should ideally be systematic, incremental and cumulative. It should:
Consider what information to gather from what sources – to ensure we measure what is most important
How to gather and record information – so it’s consistent across the case
How to use and interpret that into to test assumptions and hypotheses
• Potentially observable manifestations of the radicalization process:
• Adopting legalist interpretation of Islam
• Trusting select, ideologically rigid religious authorities
• Perceived (Incompatible) Schism Between Islam and West
• Low Tolerance for (& Personalized Reaction against) Perceived Theological Deviance
• Attempts to Impose Religious Beliefs on Others

• Political Radicalization (Western Conspiracy to Subjugate Islam)
• Distinguishable factors of radical Muslims:
• Dissatisfaction with life in general
• More preoccupied with int’l conflicts in Muslim countries
• Lonelier
• More likely to have experienced discrimination

C. Countering Violent Extremism In Arab Countries – European Parliament
• “Hardly any country in the Arab world is immune to the threat posed by jihadi terrorism”
• Steps to identify local actors in radicalization and recruitment to violent extremism; prevent and counter these attacks
o Roots cause of radicalization in the Arab world
o Arab response to extremism
No agreed definition of violent extremism; rejects military response as sole way to tackle the threat
Disrupt the flow of funding and undermine the jihadi narrative
o Cooperation with the EU

D. Hedayah Center CVE: Risks, Challenges and Future Research in the Middle East
• Risks; Gaps & Needs
o Evaluating refugee population
o Studying role of traditional educational institutions
o Investigating appeal of ISIS
• Challenges to Research in Middle East
o Access to data
o Collecting data/sharing results quickly
• Ongoing/Future Programs & Projects: Research on ISIS, being more brutal

E. CT Morse: Advancing CVE Research: The Roles of Global and Regional Coordinating Bodies
• Regional CVE Research and Initiatives: MENA
o Research and analysis on religion and politics
o Emergence of AQ and ISIL: Focus on dynamics that fuel activities
o De-radicalization, rehabilitation, reintegration efforts
• Recommendations…

F. Atlantic Council: Rafik Hariri Center for the ME, Religion, Identity, and Countering Violent Extremism
• Working groups to examine topic issues in assuring a more peaceful, prosperous Middle East:
o Security and Public Order
o Religion, Identity, and Countering Violent Extremism
o Rebuilding Societies: Refugees, Recovery, and Reconciliation
o Governance and State-Society Relations
o Economic Recovery and Revitalization
• Religious Identity, Empowerment
• Democratization of Authority within Islam
• Rise of Violent Groups
• State responses
• Policy Implications – What can be done?

G. The Arab Gulf States Institute in Washington, Combating Terrorist Financing in the Gulf: Significant Progress but Risks Remain
• Stemming flow of funds to terrorist groups via national, regional, international measures; regulate & secure formal banking sector, alternative remittance systems like hawalas, and charitable organizations in the Gulf.
o Remaining risks to address: financial intelligence; rise of ISIL; Gulf countries as partners; UN assistance in strengthening legal frameworks to combat terrorism post-9/1; governments doubling efforts to detect financing of terrorism, imposing economic sanctions and raising awareness
• Policy Recommendations for Arab Gulf States
o General: Dedicating more resources; enhancing flow of information and intelligence, raising awareness about “charitable donations”; identify and prosecute)
o Specific: Criminalize terrorist financing; “know your customer” & report suspicions; collect, analyze and disseminate suspicious reports; investigate and pursue crimes; prosecute)
o Recommendations
o National Efforts Across the Gulf
 Oman:
• 2002 Money Laundering Law
o 2004 executive regulations on law
• 2007 Anti-Terrorism Law
• 2010 Anti-Money Laundering and Terrorism Financing Law
o Unified from all previous legislation regarding financial crimes
• 2012 Introduction of Islamic banking services into the financial system through Royal Decree 69/2012
• 2014 Establishment of National Commission for Anti-Money Laundering and Terrorism Financing (NC-AMLTF)
• Further enhancing counterterrorism finance efforts

H. How Do Education and Unemployment Affect Support For Violent Extremism: Evidence from 8 Arab Countries – Brookings
• Contribution to the literature on the relationship between economic development and radicalization or support for violent extremism.
• Survey data from eight Arab countries to analyze how education and unemployment affect support for violent extremism

I. Countering Violent Extremism Strategies in the Muslim World – Kruse
• Muslim world is significant in the global fight against violent extremism; effort in 2 categories
o Global Cooperation
Global Counterterrorism Forum (GCTF)
Global Coalition to Counter Daesh (GCCD)
Degrade Daesh via (1) financing & economic structure; (2) foreign terrorist fighters (3) stabilization of liberated areas (4) counter-narrative and counter-messaging
Islamic Military Alliance to Fight Terrorism (IMAFT)
• Goal to provide Islamic response to growing threat of Daesh and to counter all forms of violent extremism, terrorism and extremism in Muslim World
o National Strategies

(2) Chapter 2: Empirical Research
2 1 Atlantic Councils’ Rafik Hariri Center for the Middle East provides closest empirical model to Oman’s methodology of countering violent extremism
2.2 Why is it the closest? Oman’s in-depth focus on:
• Security and Public Order
o Police forces, royal guards; policies on public gatherings, etc.
• Religion, Identity, and Countering Violent Extremism
o Enforcing positive religious identities; interfaith dialogue; tolerance; Public awareness of terrorism, recruitment, and radicalization
o Identity with Ibadism; acceptance/tolerance of religions; even polytheistic religions present within the country
o Interfaith dialogue and openness of mosques to outsiders; Q&A sessions, etc.
• Rebuilding Societies:
o Policies on refugees; status of the Yemen War
Refugees from Yemen; not much transparency on numbers
o Border Security
o Role in external violent situations that could potentially harm Omani nationals = non-interventionist
• Governance and State-Society Relations
o Primary efforts on nation-building
• Economic Recovery and Revitalization
o Push for jobs, equal opportunity; gender opportunity for entrepreneurship and in political/powerful roles
• Rise of Violent Groups & Lack thereof
• Policy Implications – What is being done? Emphasis on anti-money laundering per the Shura Council; non-interventionism; arbiter position
o Attack at grassroots level; heavier penalties/longer jail sentences under amendments

(3) Chapter 3: Legal and Institutional Frameworks, Religious Doctrine & Norms
3.1 Brief Introduction of:
• Society Buildup: construction of schools, hospitals, roads, etc.
• Buildup of governmental/political life & institutions: Creation of law, ministries, institutions, doctrines, etc.
o Largest number of ministries concerned with provision of services: water, electricity, public words, roads, ports, communications, commerce, agriculture & fisheries, land affairs, education, higher education, and social welfare
Large bloc of ministries and equivalent agencies deal with security, the largest being the Ministry of Defense
3.2 Legal Frameworks: Brief overview of role enforcing society
• Services
o Service commanders & chief of staff of armed forces have direct channel to sultan
o Royal Guard of Oman
o Sultan’s Special Forces
Domestic Intelligence
o Royal Oman Police
Immigrations, customs, coast guard
Hard Power vs. Soft Power {Initiatives}
Laws & Decrees:
o Declaration on Preventing and Countering Terrorism and Violent Extremism (March 2017, Jakarta, Indonesia)
o Law of Anti-Money Laundering and Combating the Financing of Terrorism
o The Law of Terrorism issued by RD No 8/2007 (aka Anti-Terrorism Law)
o Royal Decree No 12/2011 Issuing the Cyber Crime Law
o Council of Oman Affairs 'the State and Shura Councils Regulation' (R.D. 86/97)
o Criminal Court (R.D. 25/84)
o Criminal Procedures Law (R.D. 97/99)
o Establishment of the 'National Human Rights Commission' (R.D. 124/2008)
3.3 Institutional Frameworks
Ministries:
o Ministry of Defense
Control over army, air force, and navy
o Foreign Ministry
Foreign relations
o Ministry of Interior
Deals with border issues in addition to supervision of walis (local governors)
• Educational
o Education-Employment correlation
o Secular education systems + religious educational opportunities
 Rapid growth of universities across Oman
 Connectedness with external universities and nations
• Religious
o Religious Breakdown – Percentages of sects and alternative belief systems
o History of Ibadism in Oman
• Doctrine and beliefs
• Difference from “orthodox Muslims”
1. On the Imamate: respecting which they deny the right of succession to be inherent in any particular family or class, holding on the contrary, that it depends on the election of the people, and that there is no absolute necessity for an imam at all.
2. Predestination and free will: Hold predestination in such a sense as to make God the author of evil as well as good
3. On merit and demerit of human action: opposed to the orthodox in maintaining that a good intention is not necessary to render an act meritorious
• Most fundamental ideal: its egalitarianism which sought to embrace equality and fraternity all true believers
• Rejection of dissimulation and hypocrisy combined with exceptional open-mindedness and tolerance of foreign beliefs
• Reflected in foreign and domestic policy, lawmaking
o Construction of Mosques, religious doctrine, & norms
• Importance in empowering strong religious beliefs not conducive to radicalization or recruitment
o Other religious institutions/organizations/presence (roles) in the region
• Ministry of Endowment and Religious Affairs
• Al-Amana Center
• Christian-Islamic Interfaith Dialogue


(4) Conclusion
- Main takeaways/conclusions
- Moving Forward; the future
o Oman Safety and Crime Report, 2016
Post Terrorism Rating: Medium
Rating for concern of potential overflow, although OSAC states:
Important regional counterterrorism partner
No indigenous terrorist groups known to be operating in Oman
Anonymous posting on an extremist website that encouraged attacks against American and other Western teachers in the Middle East, although this was not specified to be posted in Oman
o Potential issues
Fear of overflow stemming from:
Civil War in Yemen
Proximity to Saudi Arabia, Iran, remaining Gulf nations, etc.
Accessible from waterfronts
o Inevitable death of Sultan Qaboos:
The main concern for maintaining stability in Oman stems for the uncertainty surrounding the Sultan’s eventual demise. Citizens and government leaders alike are asking, what next? Who will take over the leadership and what will be the next direction of the country? What will be the reaction by the people?
o No agreed definition of terrorism or violent extremism:
The Sultanate identities terrorism and violent extremism as “X”, while the international community has varying definitions.
Definitions, ambiguity of: radicalization, extremism; defining the problem/term of radicalization
o Efforts are marred by social pressures and state censorship of media
Topics are taboo such as the Sultan himself, government affairs, and ironically topics of religion; journalists may be subject to arrest
The institutional and legal frameworks established by the Sultanate of Oman from the 1970s until present day contribute to the countering of radicalization:
• … by enforcing a peaceful society. The religious sect of Ibadism enforces the laws of the Sultanate through its overall doctrine of peace and respect to all individuals, whether or not they be Muslim.
• … by promoting education, employment, and equal opportunities across the nation.
• … by expanding the effectiveness of global and national counterterrorism efforts by continually promoting new decrees and cooperation in efforts with other states and entities.
• … by practicing non-intervention in regards to external situations such as war or pressuring against nations. Instead Oman opts to serve as an arbiter for disagreement.
• Oman could provide strong leadership in the Middle East by promoting its model of counter-extremism and counter-terrorism by expanding its presence in legal efforts and negotiations.