The social construction of nuclear threat : US nuclear disarmament discourse, 1945-2014

• Název práce v češtině: Sociální konstrukce jaderné hrozby : nukleární odzbrojovací diskurz USA mezi lety 1945 a 2014
• Název v anglickém jazyce: The social construction of nuclear threat : US nuclear disarmament discourse, 1945-2014
• Klíčová slova: USA, nukleární zbraně, sekuritizace, nukleární proliferace, nukleární odzbrojení, bezpečnostní politika
• Klíčová slova anglicky: U.S., nuclear weapons, securitization, nuclear proliferation, nuclear disarmament, security policy
• Akademický rok vypsání: 2013/2014
• Typ práce: diplomová práce
• Jazyk práce: angličtina
• Ústav: Katedra mezinárodních vztahů (23-KMV)
• Vedoucí / školitel: doc. PhDr. Michal Smetana, Ph.D.
• Řešitel: skrytý - zadáno a potvrzeno stud. odd.
• Datum přihlášení: 27.05.2014
• Datum zadání: 27.05.2014
• Datum a čas obhajoby: 08.09.2015 00:00
• Místo konání obhajoby: IPS FSV UK, U kříže 8/661 158 00 Praha 5 – Jinonice
• Datum odevzdání elektronické podoby: 31.07.2015
• Datum proběhlé obhajoby: 08.09.2015
• Oponenti: prof. PhDr. RNDr. Nikola Hynek, Ph.D., M.A.

Seznam odborné literatury

Balzacq Thierry, The Three Faces of Securitization: Political Agency, Audience and Context, European Journal of International Relations, June 2005, vol. 11 no. 2 171-201.
Buzan Barry a Wæver Ole, Security: A New Framework for Analysis, 1998, Lynne Rienner Publishers, Colorado.
Barnaby Frank, How Nuclear Weapons Spread: Nuclear-Weapon Proliferation in the 1990s, 2005, Taylor & Francis e-Library.
Barnaby, Frank, How to Build a Nuclear Bomb and Other Weapons of Mass Destruction, 2003, London: Granta Books.
Campbell, Kurt M., Einhorn, Robert E., Reiss, Mitchell. The Nuclear Tipping Point: Why States Reconsider Their Nuclear Choices, 2004, Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution.
Global Zero, Global Zero Action Plan, 2009, available: http://www.globalzero.org/files/pdf/gzap_3.0.pdf.
Hynek, Nik. Missile Defense Discourses and Practices in Relevant Modalities of 21st-Century Deterrence, Security Dialogue 2010 41: 435, 2010, Sage Publications, International Peace Research Institute, Oslo.
Jones, Brian M. Abolishing The Taboo: President Eisenhower and The Permissible Use of Nuclear Weapons For National Security, 2008, Kansas State University.
Kristensen, Hans M. Nuclear Futures: Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction and US Nuclear Strategy, 1998, London: British American Security Information Council.
Lodgaard, Sverre. Nuclear Disarmament and Non-Proliferation. Towards a nuclear-weapon-free Word?, 2011, Routledge ,Oxon.
Nolan, Janne. The Ambivalence of the Nuclear Taboo. 2008. The Nonproliferation Review, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 135-310.
Nuclear Security Project, http://www.nuclearsecurityproject.org/.
O’Hanlon, Michael E. A Skeptic’s Case For Nuclear Disarmament, 2010, The Brookings Institution, Washington, D.C.
Perry W.J., a Scowcroft B. U.S. Nuclear Weapons Policy, Independent Task Force Report No. 62, 2009, Council on Foreign Relations.
Perkovich, George, Acton, James M. (eds.). Abolishing Nuclear Weapons: A Debate. 2009, Washington DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
Phillips N. and Hardy C. Discourse Analysis: Investigating Processes of Social Construction. 2002, Sage Publications.
Ploughshares Fund, http://ploughshares.org/.
Potter, William C. In Search of the Nuclear Taboo: Past, Present, and Future. 2010, Paris: Institut français des relations internationals.
Richard Price, Reversing the Gun Sights: Transnational Civil Society Targets Land Mines. International Organization, 52:3. (1998). p.619-620.
Remarks by President Barack Obama, Hradcany Square, Prague, Czech Republic, The White House Office of the Press Secretary, April 5, 2009
Ritchie, Nick. US Nuclear Weapons Policy after the Cold War. Russians, ‘rogues’ and domestic Division, 2009, Routledge, London.
Sagan, Scott D., and Kenneth N. Waltz. The Spread of Nuclear Weapons, 1995, New York:
W. W. Norton & Company.
Shultz George P., Perry William J., Kissinger Henry A. and Nunn Sam, A World Free of Nuclear Weapons, The Wall Street Journal, January 4, 2007.
Tannenwald Nina. Stigmatizing the Bomb. Origins of the Nuclear Taboo, International Security, 2005, Vol. 29, No. 4, pp. 5–49.
Tannenwald Nina. The Nuclear Taboo: The United States and the Non-Use of Nuclear Weapons since 1945. 2008, Cambridge Studies in International Relations.
United States Department of Defense. Nuclear Posture Review Report (2001).
United States Department of Defense. Nuclear Posture Review Report (2010).
USA, National Security Strategy, 2010, Washington.
Wittner, Lawrence S. Confronting the Bomb: A Short History of the World Nuclear Disarmament Movement (Stanford Nuclear Age Series), 2009, Stanford University Press, California.

Předběžná náplň práce

1. Introduction
Our research focuses on nuclear weapons and nuclear disarmament in particular. Nuclear disarmament covers both reduction and elimination of these weapons to the state of nuclear weapon-free world. Nuclear disarmament debate accompanies nuclear weapons since their origin and their first use in practice. The nature of this discourse has developed into various forms since then. At the beginning, the first aim of this movement was to reverse the course of development of nuclear weapons. By popular demonstrations which usually commemorated the suffering of Japan people, they pressured government officials to stop development of nuclear weapons. Subsequently, these demonstrations were followed by a whole new worldwide concern for a mankind survival. This pushed many pacifist organizations to adopt this nuclear disarmament agenda. Along with changing demands and motives of nuclear disarmament movement, reasoning and justification of the nuclear lobby about a right to possess nuclear weapons are changing as well.
With the widening and broadening of the concept of security, and along with the changing nature of an international environment, this nuclear disarmament movement brought into focuses more and more topics. Several groups of this antinuclear movement began arguing that not only nuclear weapons, but also nuclear energy itself is a serious security threat to human mankind. They began increasing public awareness of nuclear dangers which includes also environmental concerns over a usage of nuclear energy. This development is being further bolstered by several accidents which occurred in nuclear power plants during several last decades. Nuclear disarmament and anti-nuclear debate are usually considered to share the same foundations, but they, in fact, differ significantly. Nuclear disarmament debate includes some very unique elements which leads our research to focus solely on disarmament debate.
In the last decade, the nature of this threat changed considerably. In the U.S., the debate on nuclear disarmament is led not only by non-governmental organizations but also by governmental officials. Currently, U.S. president B. H. Obama plays the key role in shaping this discourse and pushing this disarmament agenda towards future nuclear arms reduction. There are many possible causes for that. Whether a threat of proliferation of nuclear weapons by terrorist organizations is real or not, it is undeniably one of many reasons standing behind recent nuclear disarmament efforts.
2. Research Question
The aim of this diploma thesis is not to provide a detailed development of nuclear disarmament movement or describe a development of anti-nuclear efforts in U.S.
This thesis focuses on a line of reasoning of both non-governmental groups and governmental officials in U.S. which are supporting the nuclear disarmament cause. We will make an attempt to trace down an agenda and a line of reasoning of nuclear disarmament discourse between 1945 and 2014. In our research we determine tendencies which stand behind this debate. In further reference to these tendencies, we answer our research question: How has the construction of the nuclear threat changed since 1945? This thesis addresses three central questions: 1) how the nuclear weapons have been stigmatized and a nuclear threat constructed; 2) which role has the disarmament movement played in the construction of the threat; and 3) how and with the help of which actors the nuclear threat evolved.
Our thesis analyzes nuclear disarmament debate on two different levels, non-governmental and governmental. Nuclear disarmament discourse is constructed by several non-governmental groups and movements. Some of them are active locally and some are supporting their agenda on a global level. This nuclear disarmament movement raises public awareness of the existence of nuclear threat and urges political figures to take actions to create future without nuclear weapons. Current non-governmental groups promoting restrictions on or reduction of nuclear weapons or nuclear disarmament are for example Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, Global Zero, Greenpeace, International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War, Mayors for Peace, International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons, or Ploughshares Fund. One of the key initiatives, Nuclear Security Project, entails actions of the key actors including Sam Nunn, William Perry, Henry Kissinger and George Schultz.
The second governmental level entails particular actions of individual political officials, governments and organizations. We examine how these units contributed to the construction of nuclear threat and how this perception evolved on this level since the start. For example, current U.S. government administration inclines to this trend of nuclear disarmament. However, we cannot determine if it was really in reaction to global disarmament movement or to which extent it is really a decision based on actual strategic interests of U.S. government. We take into account also impact of particular actions of international governmental organizations, however, they are not in the core of this level analysis.
3. Literature Review
Current nuclear disarmament discourse is largely shaped by a debate between Scott D. Sagan and Kenneth N. Waltz (Sagan, Waltz: 1995) where both take the opposite standpoint. Waltz argues for a gradual spread of nuclear weapons which creates more stable international environment where states are less prone to miscalculation faults than otherwise. In this environment, where states are more careful due to the unacceptable high cost of miscalculation, nuclear weapons create mutual deterrence of states. On the other hand, Sagan defends the opposite point of view where existence of nuclear weapons is likely to create more instability. This unstable international environment leads to possible failures and accidents resulting in the nuclear war. According to Sagan, nuclear proliferation increases the possibility of the nuclear war and therefore nuclear abolition is desirable. On the basis of these joint questions thrives the public debate whether the nuclear disarmament is desirable and feasible and whether nuclear deterrence is indeed functional or rather imagined. However, the theory of nuclear deterrence is not in the center of our study.
Another field of studies is focused on the power of norms and the process of creation of international norms. We take into account theories explaining the creation of international norms, especially theories of Richard Price, Kathryn Sikking, and Martha Finnemore. Work of Nina Tannenwald, who focuses on the phenomenon of nuclear taboo in U.S., is also a part of this normative discussion. Nina Tannenwald analyzes the phenomenon of non-use of nuclear weapons which serves as a significant element in answering the most intriguing question why nuclear weapons has not been used in conflict since 1945. A
In our research we use the book Abolishing Nuclear Weapons: A Debate (Perkovich, Acton, eds.) which present the main challenges nuclear disarmament brings. The book Confronting the Bomb: A Short History of the World Nuclear Disarmament Movement by Lawrence Wittner, who provided a detailed description of a development of nuclear disarmament movement, is also very valuable for the purpose of our analysis. He analyzes how this movement evolved and how government policies often reflect public opinion in this matter. We also use the book by Frank Barnaby How Nuclear Weapons Spread: Nuclear-Weapon Proliferation in the 1990s which provides us useful background to fully comprehend how the understanding of the nuclear threat changed in the 1990s.
4. Theoretical Concepts and Research Method
Nuclear disarmament debate can be interpreted on the basis of the concept of securitization created by Copenhagen school in the beginning of 1990s (Buzan a Wæver, 1998). According to Copenhagen school, our reality which is formed by speech acts is socially constructed. An actor usually moves a topic onto a political level and labels it as a security threat. In response to this speech act, subsequently, particular phenomenon is considered as a threat and is treated as such. Our thesis is based on an assumption that nuclear threat is created by individual actors and their speech acts.
Diploma thesis is researched through discourse analysis which gives us advantage in uncovering competing narratives which shapes anti-nuclear weapons movement discourse. We understand a discourse analysis to be a research method which requires studying texts as well as international conventions and discourse in overall. We must also take into account the social context to fully comprehend how the reality is constructed (Phillips and Hardy, 2002). With discourse analysis we make an attempt to uncover the way the reality of nuclear threat is constructed and produced.
In this approach we analyze various types of written and spoken language between years 1945 and 2014 which had a significant impact on or contributed to forming of the debate. First, we analyze scholarly articles, monographs, articles from U.S. daily news, and statements made by important non-governmental representatives of disarmament lobby. As second, we analyze documents, articles and interviews of U.S. government officials arguing for nuclear disarmament.

Předběžná náplň práce v anglickém jazyce

1. Introduction
Our research focuses on nuclear weapons and nuclear disarmament in particular. Nuclear disarmament covers both reduction and elimination of these weapons to the state of nuclear weapon-free world. Nuclear disarmament debate accompanies nuclear weapons since their origin and their first use in practice. The nature of this discourse has developed into various forms since then. At the beginning, the first aim of this movement was to reverse the course of development of nuclear weapons. By popular demonstrations which usually commemorated the suffering of Japan people, they pressured government officials to stop development of nuclear weapons. Subsequently, these demonstrations were followed by a whole new worldwide concern for a mankind survival. This pushed many pacifist organizations to adopt this nuclear disarmament agenda. Along with changing demands and motives of nuclear disarmament movement, reasoning and justification of the nuclear lobby about a right to possess nuclear weapons are changing as well.
With the widening and broadening of the concept of security, and along with the changing nature of an international environment, this nuclear disarmament movement brought into focuses more and more topics. Several groups of this antinuclear movement began arguing that not only nuclear weapons, but also nuclear energy itself is a serious security threat to human mankind. They began increasing public awareness of nuclear dangers which includes also environmental concerns over a usage of nuclear energy. This development is being further bolstered by several accidents which occurred in nuclear power plants during several last decades. Nuclear disarmament and anti-nuclear debate are usually considered to share the same foundations, but they, in fact, differ significantly. Nuclear disarmament debate includes some very unique elements which leads our research to focus solely on disarmament debate.
In the last decade, the nature of this threat changed considerably. In the U.S., the debate on nuclear disarmament is led not only by non-governmental organizations but also by governmental officials. Currently, U.S. president B. H. Obama plays the key role in shaping this discourse and pushing this disarmament agenda towards future nuclear arms reduction. There are many possible causes for that. Whether a threat of proliferation of nuclear weapons by terrorist organizations is real or not, it is undeniably one of many reasons standing behind recent nuclear disarmament efforts.
2. Research Question
The aim of this diploma thesis is not to provide a detailed development of nuclear disarmament movement or describe a development of anti-nuclear efforts in U.S.
This thesis focuses on a line of reasoning of both non-governmental groups and governmental officials in U.S. which are supporting the nuclear disarmament cause. We will make an attempt to trace down an agenda and a line of reasoning of nuclear disarmament discourse between 1945 and 2014. In our research we determine tendencies which stand behind this debate. In further reference to these tendencies, we answer our research question: How has the construction of the nuclear threat changed since 1945? This thesis addresses three central questions: 1) how the nuclear weapons have been stigmatized and a nuclear threat constructed; 2) which role has the disarmament movement played in the construction of the threat; and 3) how and with the help of which actors the nuclear threat evolved.
Our thesis analyzes nuclear disarmament debate on two different levels, non-governmental and governmental. Nuclear disarmament discourse is constructed by several non-governmental groups and movements. Some of them are active locally and some are supporting their agenda on a global level. This nuclear disarmament movement raises public awareness of the existence of nuclear threat and urges political figures to take actions to create future without nuclear weapons. Current non-governmental groups promoting restrictions on or reduction of nuclear weapons or nuclear disarmament are for example Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, Global Zero, Greenpeace, International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War, Mayors for Peace, International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons, or Ploughshares Fund. One of the key initiatives, Nuclear Security Project, entails actions of the key actors including Sam Nunn, William Perry, Henry Kissinger and George Schultz.
The second governmental level entails particular actions of individual political officials, governments and organizations. We examine how these units contributed to the construction of nuclear threat and how this perception evolved on this level since the start. For example, current U.S. government administration inclines to this trend of nuclear disarmament. However, we cannot determine if it was really in reaction to global disarmament movement or to which extent it is really a decision based on actual strategic interests of U.S. government. We take into account also impact of particular actions of international governmental organizations, however, they are not in the core of this level analysis.
3. Literature Review
Current nuclear disarmament discourse is largely shaped by a debate between Scott D. Sagan and Kenneth N. Waltz (Sagan, Waltz: 1995) where both take the opposite standpoint. Waltz argues for a gradual spread of nuclear weapons which creates more stable international environment where states are less prone to miscalculation faults than otherwise. In this environment, where states are more careful due to the unacceptable high cost of miscalculation, nuclear weapons create mutual deterrence of states. On the other hand, Sagan defends the opposite point of view where existence of nuclear weapons is likely to create more instability. This unstable international environment leads to possible failures and accidents resulting in the nuclear war. According to Sagan, nuclear proliferation increases the possibility of the nuclear war and therefore nuclear abolition is desirable. On the basis of these joint questions thrives the public debate whether the nuclear disarmament is desirable and feasible and whether nuclear deterrence is indeed functional or rather imagined. However, the theory of nuclear deterrence is not in the center of our study.
Another field of studies is focused on the power of norms and the process of creation of international norms. We take into account theories explaining the creation of international norms, especially theories of Richard Price, Kathryn Sikking, and Martha Finnemore. Work of Nina Tannenwald, who focuses on the phenomenon of nuclear taboo in U.S., is also a part of this normative discussion. Nina Tannenwald analyzes the phenomenon of non-use of nuclear weapons which serves as a significant element in answering the most intriguing question why nuclear weapons has not been used in conflict since 1945. A
In our research we use the book Abolishing Nuclear Weapons: A Debate (Perkovich, Acton, eds.) which present the main challenges nuclear disarmament brings. The book Confronting the Bomb: A Short History of the World Nuclear Disarmament Movement by Lawrence Wittner, who provided a detailed description of a development of nuclear disarmament movement, is also very valuable for the purpose of our analysis. He analyzes how this movement evolved and how government policies often reflect public opinion in this matter. We also use the book by Frank Barnaby How Nuclear Weapons Spread: Nuclear-Weapon Proliferation in the 1990s which provides us useful background to fully comprehend how the understanding of the nuclear threat changed in the 1990s.
4. Theoretical Concepts and Research Method
Nuclear disarmament debate can be interpreted on the basis of the concept of securitization created by Copenhagen school in the beginning of 1990s (Buzan a Wæver, 1998). According to Copenhagen school, our reality which is formed by speech acts is socially constructed. An actor usually moves a topic onto a political level and labels it as a security threat. In response to this speech act, subsequently, particular phenomenon is considered as a threat and is treated as such. Our thesis is based on an assumption that nuclear threat is created by individual actors and their speech acts.
Diploma thesis is researched through discourse analysis which gives us advantage in uncovering competing narratives which shapes anti-nuclear weapons movement discourse. We understand a discourse analysis to be a research method which requires studying texts as well as international conventions and discourse in overall. We must also take into account the social context to fully comprehend how the reality is constructed (Phillips and Hardy, 2002). With discourse analysis we make an attempt to uncover the way the reality of nuclear threat is constructed and produced.
In this approach we analyze various types of written and spoken language between years 1945 and 2014 which had a significant impact on or contributed to forming of the debate. First, we analyze scholarly articles, monographs, articles from U.S. daily news, and statements made by important non-governmental representatives of disarmament lobby. As second, we analyze documents, articles and interviews of U.S. government officials arguing for nuclear disarmament.