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Last update: Jana Kolářová (08.10.2020)
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Last update: Jana Kolářová (16.02.2021)
1. Cell - morphological and functional unit of the organism. Cell membrane - structure and function. Membrane organelles. 2. Non-membrane organelles. Cytoskeleton. Specialization of the cell surface. Cell junctions. Molecular principle of the molecular motors. Clinical aspect: Mutations of keratins and skin disease. 3. Nucleus - structure and function. Cell cycle, mitosis, meiosis. Cell death - apoptosis. Exocytosis, endocytosis. Cell inclusions (deposits). Clinical aspect: Tumorigenesis. 4. Tissues - classification, general structure and function. Embryonic origin of tissues - germ layers. 5. Connective tissue - general characterization. Extracellular matrix - its synthesis and composition. Cartilage - structure and function Clinical aspect: Wound healing. 6. Types of bone tissue, structure and function. Bone histogenesis. Dentin and cementum. Clinical aspect: Bone fracture repair. 7. Muscle tissue. General characterization of smooth and striated muscle (skeletal and cardiac). Intercalated disc structure. Functional morphology of a myofibril. Clinical aspect: Muscle hypertrophy and atrophy 8. Nerve tissue. Neuron - structure. Synapse - structure and function. Neuroglia - classification, structure, function. Nerve fibers and their sheets. Initiation, spreading and transmission of a nerve impulse. Clinical aspect: Demyelinating diseases 9. Blood - composition and function of peripheral blood. Blood plasma. Classification and general characteristic of the blood elements. Hematopoiesis - hematopoietic periods, stem and progenitor cells. Regulatory mechanisms of hematopoiesis. Clinical aspect: Anemia. 10. Cardiovascular system I. Heart - endocardium, myocardium, epicardium. Electrical conduction system of the heart - histological structure. Blood vessels - general structure. Types of capillaries, their function. Clinical aspect: Myocardial infarction. 11. Defense of the organism, basic principles. Lymphatic organs - structure and function. Clinical aspect: Inflammation. 12. GIT 1 - liver and biliary tract - cytology and functional morphology of hepatocyte. Oral cavity. Structure of the tooth. Clinical aspect:Cholelithiasis. 13. GIT 2 - gut tube-general structure. Mucosa of the stomach. Clinical aspects: Peptic ulcer. 14. GIT 3 - mucosa of the small intestine, functional morphology of enterocyte. Clinical aspect: Malabsorptive disorder. 15. Respiratory system. Mucosa of the respiratory airways. Mucociliary complex. Respiratory epithelium and its functional morphology (blood-air barrier). Clinical aspect: Asthma bronchiale. PRACTICAL LESSONS - winter semester 1. Introduction to cytology and histology. Basic terms. Methods of study of cells and tissues. Histological specimen. Processing of material. Communication with the histopathological lab. Basics of microscopy 2. Principles of staining, histological dyes. Basic and special staining methods. Identification of staining methods on slides. 3. Basics of histochemistry, immunohistochmistry and electron microscopy. Microscopical analysis of slides demonstrating histological techniques. 4. Epithelial tissue 1 - general characteristic, classification, basic types and their morphological properties. Microscopy of epithelial tissue. 5. Epithelial tissue 2 - functional classification and characteristic, glands - general structure, classification, types of secretion and their cytological features. Microscopy of glands. 6. Connective tissue. Visualization of connective tissue fibers. Types of connective tissue cells. Types of connective tissue, structure and function. Microscopy of connective tissue. 7. Lamellar and woven bone. Microscopy of hyaline and elastic cartilage and fibrocartilage, lamellar and woven bone. 8. Muscle tissue. Intramembranous and endochondral ossification. Microscopy of ossification and muscle tissue. 9. Neurohistological methods. Types of neurons in CNS and PNS. Structure of the peripheral nerve. Motor end plate, muscle spindle. 10. Blood. Formed blood elements. Preparation, staining and evaluation of a blood smear. Leukogram - its significance for diagnosis. 11. Bone marrow examination. Morphology of cell lineages of blood elements. 12. Cardiovascular system. Elastic and muscular arteries. Veins. Microscopy of heart, aorta, neurovascular bundle, inferior vena cava. 13. Spleen, thymus, lymph node, palatine tonsil, lingual tonsil. 14. GIT1 - Salivary glands and pancreas. Organs of the oral cavity - lip, tongue, tooth. LECTURES - summer semester 1. Urinary system. Kidney, functional morphology of nephron. Clinical aspect: Diseases of glomeruli. 2. Endocrine glands - functional morphology of endocrine cells. Clinical aspect: Diabetes mellitus. 3. Male reproductive system - cytology of spermiogenesis, hemotesticular barrier, functional morphology of male reproductive passages. Clinical aspect: Benign hyperplasia of the prostate. 4. Female reproductive system - morphological features of ovarian and menstrual cycle. Clinical aspect: Cervicovaginal smear. 5. Integumentary system - functional morphology of the skin and skin appendages. Clinical aspect: Breast tumors. 6. The nervous system - CNS (brain, cerebellum, spinal cord). Hematoencephalic barrier. Clinical aspect: Degenerative brain diseases. 7. The nervous system - PNS (nerves, ganglia, peripheral nerve endings). Clinical aspect: Nerve regeneration. 8. Sensory organs I. Structure of the eye-retina. Clinical aspect: Retinopathy. 9. Sensory organs II. Structure of the inner ear (organ of Corti, macula statica, crista ampullaris), olfactory mucosa, taste buds. Clinical aspect: Hearing disorders. 10. Fertilization, cleavage and development of the blastocyst. Clinical aspect: Infertility and its treatment. 11. Implantation. Development of the yolk sac, amnion, chorion. Extraembryonic coelom. 12. Blastogenesis. Notogenesis. Differentiation of mesoderm and mesenchyme. Neurulation. 13. Development of the placenta, the umbilical cord and fetal membranes, their structure, function and anomalies. Hemoplacental barrier. Multiple pregnancies. 14. Causes and manifestations of the abnormal development. Chromosomal aberrations, teratogens, critical periods. Developmental anomalies. 15. Significance of embryology for gynecology and obstetrics. Prenatal diagnostics. Practical lesson - summer semester 1. GIT2 - Liver, gall bladder. Oesophagus, stomach. 2. GIT3 - Gut, anus, appendix. 3. Respiratory system - epiglottis, larynx, trachea, lung. 4. Urinary system, kidney, urether, urinary bladder, urethra. 5. Endocrine glands. 6. Testis, epididymis, funiculus spermaticus, glandula vesiculosa, prostate. 7. Ovary, corpus luteum, oviduct, uterus, vagina. 8. Thick skin, thin skin, axilla, nail, mammary gland. 9. CNS - Brain, cerebellum, spinal cord. 10. PNS - Peripheral nerve, autonomic ganglion, spinal ganglion, muscle spindle. 11. Eye, inner ear, olfactory mucosa, taste buds. 12. Growth of the conceptus, determination of the age of the conceptus. Fetal period summary. Parturition (labor). Characteristics of full-term baby. Early development of the cardiovascular system. Primitive blood circulation. 13. Development of face, oral and nasal cavity. Development of the tooth. Microscopy of developing of the tooth. 14. Microscopy of embryologic slides - placenta, umbilical cord, chorion, decidua.
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Last update: Ema Klobušovská (24.01.2024)
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Last update: doc. MUDr. Tomáš Kučera, Ph.D. (05.10.2020)
Lectures, seminars, practical courses; personal consultations on request.
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Last update: doc. MUDr. Tomáš Kučera, Ph.D. (16.02.2024)
Rules on how to obtain the credit in Histology and General Embryology in the summer semester of the academic year 2023/24
In Prague, February 16, 2024. Doc. MUDr.Tomáš Kučera, Ph.D. Head of the Department
Requirements for obtaining the winter semester credit from Histology and General Embryology in the academic year 2023 /2024
1. A student has to attend 100% of the practical courses (a teacher can tolerate 2 justified absences). In addition, good study results throughout the semester are required including the practical knowledge of histological slides. In case of more absences or bad results from the tests during the semester, there is a possibility of obtaining the credit after an oral exam by the group teacher. This reexamination will take place based on the agreement with the teacher during the 15th week of the winter semester or during the exam period of the winter semester. In case of not obtaining the credit before the end of winter exam period, the student can get it together with the summer semester credit at the end of the summer semester based on the agreement with the teacher. 2. An independent requirement for the credit is a successful fulfillment of the credit test, which will take place in the regular term during the 15th week of the winter semester. Retake of this credit test can take place in the first or the fourth week of the exam period of the winter semester. Only two attempts will be allowed for the credit test altogether. For those students who fail the credit test twice there will be a possibility of an oral reexamination by the committee. The terms for oral reexaminations will be opened during the summer semester. 3. The third requirement for earning the credit is a demonstration of one histological slide during the practical lesson of the winter or the summer semester by each student. 4. The credit is a prerequisite for admission to the exam from Histology and General Embryology.
In Prague, September 27, 2023. doc. MUDr. Tomáš Kučera, Ph.D. Head of the Department of Histology and Embryology
The final credit test from the winter semester of Histology a general embryology
1) Final credit test evaluates the theoretical knowledge achieved during the winter semester in these topics – histological technique, cytology (structure and function of cell) and general histology. 2) The final credit test will take place separately for each study group during the 15th week of the winter semester at the time of scheduled practical lesson of the corresponding study group (specific details will be obtained from a teacher of the group). 3) The test consists of 30 single best answer questions. 4) To pass the test a student has to obtain at least 18 points. 5) In case a student fails to pass the test at the 15th week of the winter semester, there will be a possibility to retake the test in one of the two available terms during the winter exam period (Wednesday January 24th and Wednesday February 14th). For these retakes it is possible to register based on individual choice through teachers of the group. The registration is binding and absences have to be excused. More tests in this written form will not be available. 6) In case a student fails to pass the written test on retake, there will be a possibilty to fulfil this requirement for the credit in an oral test in front of the committee. The terms of these oral retakes will be available during the summer semester based on the actual need. The failure in this oral retake will result in the definitive failure to obtain the winter semester credit. Symbol „K“ will be marked in the SIS and it will be impossible to take the final exam from Histology and General Embryology and thus this subject will not be fulfilled in the corresponding academic year.
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Last update: doc. MUDr. Tomáš Kučera, Ph.D. (26.03.2024)
General rules of exams at the Institute of Histology and Embryology in the subject Histology and General Embryology
Point (1) Specifying the examination dates
The dates of examination will be announced until March 26, 2024. They will be entered in the SIS. All dates, on which the exam can be taken will be announced in advance. This number of dates will be definitive.
The examination dates will be set in the following periods:
- preterm - terms in the regular examination period of the summer semester and part of the summer holidays (i.e. from 3.6.2024 to 4.7.2024). - terms in the summer holidays will be opened after the end of the first part of the regular summer exam period - terms in September will be opened after the end of the summer holiday exams. - No more terms will be added and their capacity will not be increased.
The last term can be held not later than two weeks before the beginning of the next academic year (see the faculty rules). After that, no more exams can be performed or terms applied for, even if not all possible terms/resits offered have been taken.
Point (2) Rules for registration for exams and cancellation
The start of registration for specific examination dates will be entered in SIS, and it will be different in particular groups of terms. For regular summer semester exam period the terms will open on 2.4.2024.
A student can only take the exam if registered for the term in SIS.
Registration for an exam is not determined by obtaining the credit but taking the exam is.
Deadlines for registration for particular examination dates and for cancellation will be entered into SIS. (These will be specified by the particular Institute but must be in accordance with the Rules, Article 12, Subsection 2, and Article 15, Subsection 8)
Point (3) Failure to turn up for examination and apology
The student who fails to turn up for the examination that he/she has registered for and does not apologize in advance is classified as “fail” and the term is lost. It is possible to register for another term in case other conditions allow that (available free terms etc.). The student must apologise to the head of the institute. The student will be informed about acceptance of the apology. The head of the institute can require specification of the apology or its reasons if he finds the apology insufficient. The late apology can be accepted only in serious and justified situations.
Point (4) Re-examinations
A student can take an examination in a subject for three times as a maximum, i.e. the student is entitled to two re-examinations, and no extraordinary terms beyond that are allowed (Regulations, Article 8, Subsection 14). However, if the student does not exploit the above options within the set examination dates, this does not entitle him/her to a special date of examination to be appointed for him/her personally (ibid.). No more examination dates (“terms”) will be set. Further, no examinations can be taken after the end of the second part of the regular examination period in September, or after the last term announced (September 13, 2024). No extraordinary terms or “Dean’s terms” are allowed. Additional rules for re-examination may be included here, as specified by particular Institutes.
Point (5) Rules pertaining to the course of examination
The specific rules and regulations for the course of examination are published elsewhere.
INFORMATION ABOUT EXAMS FROM HISTOLOGY AND GENERAL EMBRYOLOGY
The final exam will be in combined form and it will consist of two parts: 1st a written theoretical test 2nd apractical exam of histological slides
These two parts of exam will always take place in this order and students have to take both parts of exam on one day. To continue with the second part it is necessary to succeed in the first part by reaching the minimal threshold of acquired points (see below). 1st part – a written theoretical test: 1) Students have to be present in front of the exam room at the time announced on the SIS. 2) Only those students who will be able to prove their identity by the student identity card will be let into the exam room and will be allowed to take the exam test. 3) A written test consists of 70 questions. The questions cover all the topics from the winter and the summer semester and also include the knowledge of microscopical structures and schemes of microscopical structure as well as embryonic development. Student has to select one correct answer from 4 possible alternatives and mark it according to instructions (single best answer). 4) The students will start to answer the test questions only after they are allowed to by an examiner. There will be a time limit 75 min to answer all the questions. Students have to work independently. Any help or use of any notes, study materials and electronic devices is strongly forbidden, while relevant rules will be followed in this case a). After the answering of the questions is started no student will be allowed to leave the examination room b). 5) After the time limit runs out, the examiner will terminate the test.
Evaluation of the 1st part of the exam For each correctly answered question a student gets 1 point. For each incorrectly answered question a student gets 0 points. Minimum to pass the test is 49 pts. Announcement of results of the 1st part of the exam Students will learn the result of the first part of the exam immediately after the test is evaluated. Those students who did not get over the minimal score will be marked as “failed” and their exam will be finishedc). Those who reached the limit will continue with the 2nd part of the exam on the same day according to the schedule announced by examiners. The study and revision of the evaluated exam tests will not be allowed (not even in the future).
2nd part of the exam – practical exam of knowledge of histological slides Students will be assigned to individual examiners based on the examiner’s decision. The basis of the practical exam is histological slide test during which the student has to identify organ (tissue), staining and prove his/her knowledge of basic as well as specific structures on 3 microscopical slides. Each of the slides is evaluated independently. To pass the 2nd part of the exam, a student has to get a minimal score and correctly identify at least one histological slide.
Exam classification
The final classification is a result of the total score from both parts of the exam. In case minimal requirements are not met in any part of the exam, it is classified as “failed”.
Obtained score and classification: 1st part – maximum 70 points 0-48 points – minimum score is not reached, classified as “failed” 49-70 points – minimum score reached – possibility to continue the exam 2nd part – maximum 30 points 0-14 points minimum score is not reached, classified as “failed” 15-30 points minimum score reached The points are given for the correct identification of the organ/tissue, identification of the histological staining used, knowledge of structures in the given histological slide. In case none of the slides is identified correctly, the requirements to pass the 2nd part of the exam are not met and the exam is classified as “failed”. To pass the 2nd part of exam, the student must recognize at least one slide and reach at least 15 points.
Final exam classification according to the total score: 0 – 66 points classified as “fail” 67-76 points classified as “good” 77-88 points classified as “very good” 89-100 points classified as “excellent”
Exam retakes (reparative attempts) The general rules for exam retakes are published elsewhere. Exam is not passed and students has to retake the whole exam in the following cases: 1) failure in the first part of the exam 2) failure in the second part of the exam 3) failure to reach the minimal total score from both parts of the exam
a) The dean’s measure no.19/2009 incl. corresponding Amendment no.1
b) A student can leave the room before the end of time limit due to a good reason (e.g. sudden indisposition) and with the approval of the examiner; however, the test has to be terminated and will be evaluated as it is.
c) In case the minimal score necessary to proceed to the 2nd part of the exam is reached neither in the regular, 2nd and 3rd attempt, the exam is not terminated and continues as an oral test. In this oral test, which takes places on the same day immediately following the evaluation of the first part, a student has to answer three questions taken form the list of exam topics on SIS. The student will get an appropriate amount of time to answer the questions. In case of insufficient knowledge, the exam will be terminated and classified as “failed”. In case the student demonstrates at least minimal required theoretical knowledge, the first part of the exam will be fulfilled and the student will proceed to the 2nd part on the same day with minimal amount of required points (this oral exam will not be classified independently).
In Prague, March 26, 2024.
Doc. MUDr.Tomáš Kučera, Ph.D. Head of ÚHIEM
Requested knowledge for final exam of Histology and General Embryology
Cytology and general histology 1.Collection and processing of material for histological evaluation 2.Basic and special staining methods, principles and results 3.Histochemical methods, principles and application 4.Immunohistochemical methods, principles and application 5.Structural organization of the cell, overview of cell components 6.Cell membrane - structure and function 7.Cell surface specializations 8.Membranous cell organelles - structure and function 9.Cell nucleus and non-membranous cell organelles - structure and function 10.Cytoskeleton - structure, function and diagnostic application 11.Structure of intercellular junctions 12.Cell division - mitosis and meiosis 13.Cell cycle and its regulation, cell death – apoptosis 14.Epithelial tissue (classification according to the structure) 15.Epithelial tissue (classification according to the function) 16.Types of secretory cells, classification of glands 17.Smooth muscle tissue 18.Cross-striated skeletal muscle tissue, myofibril 19.Cross-striated cardiac muscle tissue, intercalated disc 20.Connective tissue - general structure and classification 21.Extracellular matrix – structure and function 22.Connective tissue proper – characteristics and classification 23.Cell types of connective tissue proper and their function 24.Cartilage - structure and function, description of the individual types 25.Microscopical structure of the bone tissue, description of the individual types 26.Endochondral and intramembranous ossification 27.Nerve cell - structure, types of neurons, synapse 28.Types of nerve fibers, their sheaths and endings 29.Neuroglia – common features, classification and function 30.Composition of the peripheral blood 31.Preparation and evaluation of the blood smear 32.Erythrocytes, structure and function 33.Leukocytes, classification, structure and function, leukogram 34.Platelets- differentiation, structure and function 35.Hematopoiesis, periods, stem cells, growth factors, structure of the bone marrow
Special histology 1.Structure of the heart, conducting system of the heart 2.General structure and classification of blood vessels 3.Structure of the capillaries, types of arrangement of the capillary bed 4.Structure of the arterial wall 5.Structure of the venous wall 6.Spleen, structure and function 7.Thymus, structure and function 8.Lymph node, structure and function 9.Overview of the immune system 10.Structure and function of the thyroid gland and parathyroid gland 11.Hypophysis, structure and function, hypophyseal portal system 12.Structure and function of the adrenal gland and pancreatic islets 13.Structure of the tongue, overview of the salivary glands of the oral cavity 14.Structure of compound salivary glands 15.Structure of the tooth 16.General structure of the digestive tube, structure of esophagus 17.Mucous layer of the stomach 18.Mucous layer of the small and large intestines 19.Pancreas and gall bladder, biliary ducts 20.Liver 21.Mucous layer of the respiratory tract 22.Structure and function of the larynx and trachea 23.Structure and function of the lung 24.Structure of the kidney, nephron 25.Relationship of nephron and vascular supply of the kidney 26.Excretory urinary passages 27.Skin, general structure, vascular supply and innervation 28.Structure and function of the epidermis 29.Structure of dermis and the subcutaneous tissue 30.Skin appendages 31.Structure and function of the mammary gland 32.Testis, spermatogenesis 33.Epididymis and vas deferens, structure and function 34.Accessory glands of the male reproductive system 35.Structure of the ovary 36.Development of the ovarian follicle, oogenesis 37.Uterus and oviduct 38.Endometrium and menstrual cycle 39.Cervix uteri and vagina, structure and examination 40.General characteristics of CNS and PNS 41.CNS – cyto- and myeloarchitecture of the brain cortex 42.Cerebellum and the spinal cord 43.Peripheral and optic nerve 44.General characteristics of the sensory organs 45.Histological structure of the anterior part of the eye 46.Histological structure of the posterior part of the eye 47.General structure of the inner ear, structure and function of its vestibular part 48.Cochlea and the organ of Corti
General embryology
1.Development (maturation) of sperm 2.Development (maturation) of oocyte 3.Fertilization and early development of the human embryo 4.Development and implantation of the blastocyst 5.Anomalies of implantation, ectopic pregnancy 6.Development of the amniotic and yolk sacs, chorion 7.Embryonic disc and its differentiation 8.Formation of the germ layers 9.Development of the ectoderm and its differentiation 10.Development of the neuroectoderm and its differentiation 11.Neural crest and its differentiation 12.Development of the mesoderm and its differentiation 13.Development of the axial structures (notogenesis) 14.Development of the notochord and its significance for development of other structures 15.Development of the endoderm and its differentiation 16.Origin and further development of the mesenchyme 17.Early development of the cardiovascular system 18.Primitive blood circulation 19.Development of the facial region, nasal and oral cavity 20.Development of the tooth 21.Development and structure of fetal membranes 22.Development and anomalies of the umbilical cord 23.Structure of the placenta 24.Development and anomalies of the placenta 25.Development of chorionic villi, hemoplacental barrier 26.Growth of the conceptus, development of its shape 27.Childbirth (parturition), signs of the full-term baby 28.Multiple pregnancies, twins and their fetal membranes 29.Summary of causes and manifestations of developmental anomalies 30.Basic conditions of teratogenesis, teratogens, critical periods
LIST OF HISTOLOGICAL SLIDES REQUIRED FOR THE FINAL EXAM Each slide can be stained with any of the basic staining methods, or special staining methods (Heidenhain’s hematoxylin, PAS, impregnation, alcian blue, luxol blue, elastin staining, Nissl´s method, alkaline phosphatase). Tissues: A5 Tendon (dense connective tissue, regular) A11 Fibrocartilage A12 Endochondral ossification A14 Intramembranous ossification A15 Haversian compact bone A16 Lamellar spongy bone A17 Uterus - Smooth muscle A18 Skeletal muscle A19 Skeletal muscle, Heidenhain´s hematoxylin
Circulatory system: F1 Heart F2 Large elastic artery (aorta), cross section F3 Large elastic artery (aorta), longitudinal section, orcein F4 Small muscular arteries and small veins F5 Small muscular arteries and small veins, basic staining method, elastin staining F6 Large muscular vein (vena cava inferior)
Lymphoid system: G1 Lymph node G2 Spleen G3 Spleen, silver impregnation G4 Thymus of the child G5 Thymus of the adult
Endocrine system: E1 Pituitary E2 Thyroid E3 Parathyroid E4 Suprarenal gland E5 Pancreas E6 Pancreas, Islets of Langerhans, aldehyde fuchsine
Digestive system: B1 Lip B2 Tooth B3 Tongue, anterior part of the body B4 Tongue, root B5 Palatine tonsil B6 Parotid gland B7 Submandibular gland B8 Sublingual gland B9 Pancreas B10 Oesophagus B11 Stomach, cardia B12 Stomach, fundus B13 Stomach, pylorus B14 Duodenum B15 Jejunum B16 Large intestine B17 Appendix B18 Liver B19 Liver, PAS B20 Gallbladder B21 Anus
Respiratory system: D1 Epiglottis D2 Larynx D3 Trachea D4 Lung
Urinary system: C1 Kidney C2 Kidney, alkaline phosphatase C3 Ureter C4 Urinary bladder C5 Urethra
Male reproductive system: C6 Testis C7 Epididymis C8 Seminal vesicle C9 Spermatic cord C10 Prostate
Female reproductive system: C11 Ovary C12 Ovary, corpus luteum C13 Uterine tube C14 Uterus, body C15 Uterus, cervix C16 Vagina
Skin: H1 Thick skin H2 Thin hairy skin H3 Skin of the axilla H4 Mammary gland H5 Mammary gland during lactation H6 Nipple
Nervous system: L1 Brain L2 Brain, Nissl´s method L3 Cerebellum L4 Cerebellum, impregnation L5 Spinal cord L6 Choroid plexus L7 Peripheral nerve, longitudinal section L8 Peripheral nerve, cross section L9 Sympathetic ganglion L10 Spinal ganglion
Sensory organs: S1 Eye, anterior segment S2 Eye, posterior segment S3 Lacrimal gland S4 Eyelid S5 Olfactory epithelium, nasal mucosa S6 Inner ear S7 Optic nerve
Embryology: X1 Decidua X2 Chorion X3 Placenta X4 Umbilical cord X5 Development of the tooth
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