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Course, academic year 2025/2026
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From Cells to Organism - MB151P136E
Title: From Cells to Organism
Czech title: Od buněk k organismu
Guaranteed by: Department of Cell Biology (31-151)
Faculty: Faculty of Science
Actual: from 2024
Semester: summer
E-Credits: 5
Examination process: summer s.:combined
Hours per week, examination: summer s.:3/2, C+Ex [HT]
Capacity: unlimited
Min. number of students: unlimited
4EU+: no
Virtual mobility / capacity: no
State of the course: taught
Language: English
Note: enabled for web enrollment
priority enrollment if the course is part of the study plan
Guarantor: prof. RNDr. Jan Černý, Ph.D.
Teacher(s): prof. RNDr. Jan Černý, Ph.D.
Annotation
The course From cells to organisms provides a definition of the multicellularity concept using the synthetic
approach applied to the structure-function relationship. It covers the mechanisms behind the establishment of the
body plans and tussue/organ complexity or sustainability of the complex life forms including evolutionary
principles (evo-devo approach). The general principles of multicellularity will be shown on various models, with
the emphasis to provide a synthesis of the anatomy, morphology, histology, physiology and developmental biology
into one functional educational base.

The course From cells to organisms will set the stage for follow-up courses, particularly Evolution and Ecology.

The course is built from topical blocks (see Syllabus) each of them consisting of lecture (3h) and workshop
focused on primary literature as a Q&A session(2h).
Last update: Půta František, doc. RNDr., CSc. (06.02.2022)
Literature

1. Developmental Biology 11th Edition, ISBN-13: 978-1605356044, 2016
2. Plant Physiology and Development, ISBN: 9781605357454, 2018
3. Janeway's Immunobiology, 10th Edition, ISBN-13: 978-0393884890, 2022
4. Human Physiology: An Integrated Approach, 8th Edition, ISBN-13: 978-0134605197, 2018
5. Principles of Neural Science, 6th Edition, ISBN-13: 978-1259642234, 2021
6. Biology by Numbers - , 2015
7. Lecture notes
8. Pre-recorded lectures
9. Problem sets

Last update: Šebková Nataša, RNDr., Ph.D. (31.05.2022)
Requirements to the exam

Final mark is based on the oral examination (67%) and results of tests taken during the course (33%). Oral examination takes place during the examination period and students must first obtain the evaluation for Q&A sessions and take-home exercises.

Last update: Půta František, doc. RNDr., CSc. (07.02.2022)
Syllabus

The origin and evolution of multicellularity

Concept of multicellularity, intercellular junctions, extracellular matrix

Diversity of cell types in multicellular organisms

Autotrophy and heterotrophy in the multicellular context

Histological and anatomical principles

Principles of developmental biology - the origin of multicellular life forms complexity

Spatial and temporal regulation of multicellular life forms

Physiological principles, feedback mechanisms, hormonal regulation, regulation of size

Origin of patterns (geometry of life) and rhythmicity (chronobiology)

Physiology and functional morphology of sensory organs - case study

Principles of neurobiology

Principles of immunology

Most organisms are not alone - concepts of symbiosis, chimerism, microbiomes.

Last update: Půta František, doc. RNDr., CSc. (07.02.2022)
Learning outcomes -

From Cells to Organism — LEARNING OUTCOMES

A. Core concepts of stem cells and plasticity

After completing the course, the student will be able to:

  • Define a stem cell and distinguish stem cell types by potency (toti-, pluri-, multi-, oligo-, bi-, unipotent) and by origin (embryonic, adult, induced).
  • Explain the principle of polarised cell division and describe the role of the stem cell niche in maintaining stemness.
  • List and explain key stem cell hallmarks (e.g., telomerase activity, autophagy, mitochondrial silencing, absence of circadian rhythmicity).
  • Explain the biological logic of cell turnover in different tissues and justify why stem cell–based renewal is required in selected organs.
  • Provide examples and differentiate multipotent, oligopotent, bipotent and unipotent stem cells (e.g., haematopoiesis, pericytes/mesenchymal stem cells, small intestine crypts, CNS, mammary gland, thymus, epidermis, spermatogenesis).
  • Explain the concept of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) and describe the role of Yamanaka transcription factors in reprogramming.
  • Describe the concept of organoids, give examples of their use, and differentiate organoids from conventional cell culture models.
  • Explain the principle of blastocyst complementation using a concrete example and discuss its potential for transplantation medicine.
  • Define microchimerism, distinguish major types, and explain experimental strategies to trace it (e.g., fluorescent proteins).
  • Define and illustrate metaplasia, provide examples, and explain its relevance to adaptation and pathology.

B. Epithelia and functional organisation

After completing the course, the student will be able to:

  • List key features of epithelia and explain why epithelia are functionally essential despite their small mass fraction.
  • Describe epithelial cell polarity and distinguish apical vs. basolateral membrane domains including functional consequences.
  • Explain why the basal lamina is required for epithelial polarisation and maintenance of epithelial identity.
  • Classify epithelia by layering and cell shape (simple vs. stratified; squamous/cuboidal/columnar) and provide typical anatomical locations.
  • Describe and differentiate specialised epithelia (pseudostratified, transitional, trabecular, reticular) and justify their functional logic.
  • Describe mesothelium, identify its locations, and explain examples of epithelial metaplasia (e.g., smoking-related airway changes; Barrett’s oesophagus).
  • Compare epithelial turnover rates across tissues and give an example of an epithelium with low regenerative capacity (e.g., corneal endothelium).
  • Explain evolutionary and embryological origins of epithelia and discuss relationships to other derived cell types (myoepithelia, neuroepithelia).
  • Explain EMT/MET and provide examples of their roles in development, regeneration and cancer biology.
  • Differentiate apical specialisations (microvilli vs. motile cilia) and link them to their cytoskeletal basis (actin vs. tubulin).
  • Explain the function of the primary cilium and describe a ciliopathy example (e.g., Kartagener syndrome) with key pathophysiology.
  • Explain epithelial roles in water transport and apply aquaporin regulation to a physiological example (e.g., ADH in the kidney; diabetes insipidus).
  • Describe the molecular mechanism of cystic fibrosis as a disorder of epithelial ion and water transport.

C. Glandular epithelium and secretion

After completing the course, the student will be able to:

  • Differentiate exocrine vs. endocrine glands and explain how some organs combine both functions (e.g., hepatocytes).
  • Classify glands as unicellular vs. multicellular and provide representative examples with functional relevance.
  • Differentiate secretion modes (merocrine, apocrine, holocrine) and match them to specific organs or scenarios.
  • Describe goblet cell distribution and function in the intestine and explain their contribution to barrier function.
  • Explain mammary gland biology (secretion type, development, involution/proliferation cycle) and discuss links to stem cells and organoids.
  • Describe myoepithelial cells, identify typical locations, and explain their role in expelling secretions.
  • Describe tear film composition and explain why it reflects contributions from multiple glandular sources.

D. Gastrointestinal tract as a composite organ

After completing the course, the student will be able to:

  • Describe the layered organisation of the GI tract and explain why it functions as a “composite organ”.
  • List major intestinal epithelial cell types and describe their roles (enterocytes, goblet cells, Paneth cells, enteroendocrine cells, tuft cells, M cells, etc.).
  • Explain crypt–villus functional logic and describe localisation and fate of intestinal stem cells.
  • Compare buccal, oesophageal, gastric, small intestinal, large intestinal and rectal epithelia in structure–function context.
  • Explain principles of surface enlargement in the GI tract and apply them to selected regions.
  • Describe gastric epithelial complexity and explain parietal cell contribution to low luminal pH.

E. Endothelium and vessel wall biology

After completing the course, the student will be able to:

  • Describe vessel wall organisation and explain cooperation among endothelium, smooth muscle and connective tissue.
  • Provide examples of avascular tissues (e.g., cornea, hyaline cartilage) and justify how they are nourished.
  • Explain the developmental origin of vascular valves as endothelial derivatives.
  • Differentiate fenestrated endothelia and provide examples (e.g., liver, including the role of Kupffer cells).
  • Explain glomerular filtration as cooperation between endothelium and podocytes.
  • Describe the blood–brain barrier and explain the role of astrocytes in its function.
  • Explain hypoxia-driven angiogenesis (HIF/VEGF) and differentiate arterial vs. venous endothelium (ephrin-B2 vs. ephrin-B4).
  • Describe atherosclerosis as an inflammatory process and explain foam cell formation and key histological changes. 

F. Epidermis and skin biology

After completing the course, the student will be able to:

  • Describe basic skin layers (epidermis, dermis, hypodermis) and differentiate thick vs. thin skin.
  • List epidermal cell types and describe their localisation and functions.
  • Explain the role of unipotent stem cells in the epidermis and describe keratinocyte differentiation into corneocytes including renewal timing.
  • Explain tattoo persistence based on the role of tissue-resident macrophages.
  • Describe Merkel cells and explain their link to cancer biology (including Merkel cell polyomavirus).
  • Describe Langerhans cells and explain their role in immune surveillance.
  • Explain melanocyte origin from the neural crest and describe regulation of melanogenesis (melanosomes and transfer to keratinocytes).
  • Explain mechanisms contributing to hair greying and discuss the role of melanosomal pH.
  • Differentiate pigmentation disorders (e.g., albinism, vitiligo, Waardenburg syndromes) and describe underlying cellular/genetic principles.
  • Explain skin mechanics (papillary ridges, cleavage lines) in relation to connective tissue organisation.
  • Explain cytokeratin-related epidermal diseases and apply this to epidermolysis bullosa simplex, including a discussion of potential genetic approaches. 

G. Neuroepithelia and sensory systems

After completing the course, the student will be able to:

  • Explain why neuroepithelia are developmentally and functionally derived from polarised epithelia.
  • Provide examples of “sensory receptor” expression in non-sensory contexts (e.g., olfactory receptors in sperm; opsins in melanocytes; chemosensory receptors in tuft cells).
  • Describe olfactory neuroepithelium organisation, explain the “one receptor per cell” principle, and describe axonal projection to the olfactory bulb.
  • Explain combinatorial receptor coding in olfaction and discuss interspecies differences.
  • Describe gustatory neuroepithelium (papillae, taste bud, taste pore) and differentiate receptor cell types and receptor classes.
  • Describe cochlear structure–function logic and explain hair cell mechanoreceptor function.
  • Explain mechanotransduction and provide an example of genetic hearing impairment (e.g., connexin mutations).
  • Describe functional logic of ocular anatomy (cornea, lens, iris, retina, pigmented epithelium) in relation to light processing.
  • Explain 11-cis-retinal regeneration and describe the roles of pigmented epithelium and Müller cells.
  • Differentiate rods vs. cones, explain outer segment origin from cilia, and describe retinal distribution patterns.
  • Explain phototransduction mechanisms and discuss species-specific vision differences (including female tetrachromacy).

 

H. Muscle tissue

After completing the course, the student will be able to:

  • Differentiate skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle and describe their key structural and functional differences.
  • Describe sarcomere organisation and explain roles of actin, myosin, titin and nebulin in contractility.
  • Explain the myosin ATPase cycle and link ATP hydrolysis to myosin conformational changes.
  • Describe skeletal muscle energetics (aerobic vs. anaerobic) and explain roles of creatine phosphate and glycogen.
  • Describe connective tissue sheaths of muscle (endo-, peri-, epimysium) and explain their mechanical function.
  • Explain regulation of skeletal muscle contraction (neuromuscular synapse, T-tubules, Ca²⁺ handling).
  • Explain myasthenia gravis pathophysiology in relation to acetylcholine receptors.
  • Compare fast- vs. slow-twitch fibres and describe their functional characteristics.
  • Explain skeletal muscle regeneration and describe the role of satellite cells.
  • Describe Duchenne muscular dystrophy as a monogenic disease and explain its severe phenotype.
  • Explain regulation of muscle mass (myostatin axis; anabolic vs. catabolic pathways).
  • Describe cardiac muscle specialisations (intercalated discs, Purkinje fibres) and explain their functional relevance.
  • Explain cardiomyocyte hypertrophy in relation to cell size control and nuclear content.
  • Discuss evidence and limitations of cardiac regeneration and adult cardiac stem cell concepts.
  • Describe smooth muscle localisation (myometrium, GI tract, vasculature) and differentiate GI smooth muscle organisation.
  • Explain smooth muscle contraction regulation (MLCK) and describe dense bodies/plaques as structural correlates.
  • Describe autonomic innervation patterns (varicosities, gap junctions) and apply them to iris muscle control (sympathetic vs. parasympathetic). 

I. Connective tissue and extracellular matrix

After completing the course, the student will be able to:

  • Explain ECM roles in tissue mechanics and provide examples of ECM-related disorders (Ehlers–Danlos, Marfan) and fibrosis.
  • Differentiate major ECM components (collagens, elastin, proteoglycans) and explain the principle of elastin elasticity.
  • Differentiate fibroblast, fibrocyte and mesenchymal stem cell based on phenotype and function.
  • Classify connective tissue as proper, supporting or specialised, and provide representative examples.
  • Compare loose vs. dense connective tissue, describe cellular composition, and identify typical locations (lamina propria, dermis).
  • Describe connective tissue associations with muscle and nerves (endo-/peri-/epimysium; endo-/peri-/epineurium) and explain functional consequences.
  • Differentiate adipose tissue types (white, brown, beige, pink; uni- vs. multilocular) and describe their functions and localisation.
  • Explain “beiging” of white adipose tissue and discuss effects of ambient temperature and depot-specific differences.
  • Differentiate metabolically healthy vs. pathological obesity and explain leptin/ghrelin roles in energy homeostasis.
  • Interpret an epigenetic example affecting adipose differentiation (e.g., famine programming; agouti mouse) and explain broader implications.
  • Explain brown adipose thermogenesis (uncoupling proteins) and compare features shared with muscle (innervation, excitability).

 

J. Cartilage, bone and teeth

After completing the course, the student will be able to:

  • Differentiate cartilage types (hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage) and explain proteoglycan-driven hydration and mechanics.
  • Describe chondroblasts/chondrocytes, lacunar localisation, and explain the role of perichondrium.
  • Explain why cartilage is poorly vascularised and evaluate consequences for adult regeneration.
  • Explain intervertebral disc prolapse using fibrocartilage structure–function logic.
  • Differentiate chondroma, chondrosarcoma and inflammatory cartilage changes.
  • Explain achondroplasia as an FGFR3-related condition and provide relevant animal examples.
  • Compare intramembranous vs. endochondral ossification.
  • List major bone cell types (osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts) and describe their functions.
  • Describe organic vs. mineral contributions to bone and explain their mechanical roles.
  • Explain hormonal regulation of mineralisation (calcitonin vs. PTH).
  • Describe the osteon/Haversian system and locate key cell types within bone architecture.
  • Explain bone remodelling dynamics and apply them to a microgravity example (astronaut bone loss).
  • Explain osteoclast biology (syncytial nature, monocyte origin) and describe its roles in remodelling, skull growth and tooth eruption.
  • Compare osteoporosis vs. osteopetrosis in terms of cellular mechanism and phenotype.
  • Differentiate dentin vs. enamel, link them to odontoblasts vs. ameloblasts, and explain deposition logic.
  • Explain why ameloblasts do not persist in adults and discuss implications for enamel regeneration.

K. Blood, haematopoiesis and immune cell biology

After completing the course, the student will be able to:

  • Interpret quantitative blood parameters (cell counts vs. cell mass) and compare turnover of erythrocytes vs. neutrophils.
  • Describe blood composition and explain key functions.
  • Describe erythrocyte enucleation and identify major maturation stages relevant to erythropoiesis.
  • Compare fetal vs. adult haemoglobin and differentiate mammalian vs. non-mammalian erythrocytes (enucleated vs. nucleated).
  • Describe major ontogenetic waves of haematopoiesis and explain their significance.
  • Explain sickle cell disease and thalassaemias as haemoglobin disorders.
  • Explain haematocrit regulation and interpret selected adaptation examples (EPO/EPO-R; high-altitude/other cases).
  • Formulate and defend whether erythrocytes qualify as “living” cells based on structure and function.
  • Describe platelet formation from megakaryocytes (including ploidy and localisation) and differentiate platelets vs. thrombocytes.
  • Explain platelet roles in haemostasis and tissue repair and provide examples of platelet–microbe interactions.
  • Differentiate granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) and describe granule content/function at a conceptual level.
  • Explain neutrophil recruitment, chemotaxis and phagocytosis of opsonised bacteria; describe oxidative burst.
  • Explain NETosis and evaluate when it is protective vs. harmful.
  • Explain eosinophil roles in anti-parasitic immunity and interpret eosinophilia.
  • Explain basophil degranulation, Ig receptor function, and compare basophils vs. mast cells.
  • Describe monocyte differentiation into macrophages and dendritic cells and link osteoclasts to the monocyte lineage.
  • Differentiate tissue-resident vs. monocyte-derived macrophages and explain macrophage polarisation (microbicidal vs. repair-oriented).
  • Explain dendritic cells as professional antigen-presenting cells and justify their role bridging innate and adaptive immunity. 

L. Immunology

After completing the course, the student will be able to:

  • Differentiate humoral vs. cellular immunity and provide examples of barrier functions.
  • List innate humoral components (lysozyme, defensins, complement) and explain their roles.
  • Differentiate innate vs. adaptive immunity and explain the logic of immunological memory.
  • Explain functions of primary and secondary lymphoid organs and justify their necessity for adaptive responses.
  • Differentiate PAMPs vs. DAMPs and explain their importance in immune activation.
  • Explain opsonisation, phagocytosis, oxidative burst and NETosis as antimicrobial mechanisms.
  • Differentiate cytotoxic vs. helper T cells and explain their roles.
  • Explain antigen–antibody interaction including affinity vs. avidity.
  • Explain cytotoxic mechanisms (granzyme/perforin vs. Fas) and apply them to model scenarios.
  • Explain V(D)J recombination and justify how limited gene numbers generate high receptor diversity.
  • Explain membrane-bound vs. secreted immunoglobulin forms and link this to alternative splicing.
  • Explain affinity maturation and somatic hypermutation as selection-driven processes.
  • Differentiate TCR vs. antibody in structure and function.
  • Differentiate MHC I vs. MHC II (peptide origin/length, pathways, CD4/CD8 coreceptors, expressing cell types).
  • Explain MHC polymorphism vs. polygeny and apply the concept to population-level examples.
  • Describe the immunological synapse and identify key participating molecules at a conceptual level.
  • Explain how the immune system learns self vs. non-self and describe positive vs. negative thymic selection.
  • Describe thymic epithelial cell types, explain AIRE function, and predict consequences of AIRE loss-of-function.
  • Explain the role of autophagy in thymic selection.
  • Explain NK cell decision-making as a balance of activating vs. inhibitory receptors.
  • Explain HLA-G biology (trophoblast expression) and discuss relevance in infection and cancer contexts.
  • Explain trogocytosis and describe how it can alter immune cell phenotypes. 

M. Memory and learning (cognitive foundations)

After completing the course, the student will be able to:

  • Define memory and describe major stages of the learning/memory process.
  • Compare sensory, short-term and long-term memory in capacity, duration and mechanism.
  • Explain memory consolidation and reconsolidation and identify major modulatory factors.
  • Differentiate parallel memory systems and provide examples of their functional specialisation.
  • Define habituation, conditioning, priming and motor learning and provide examples.
  • Differentiate declarative memory (episodic vs. semantic) and explain the role of the hippocampus.
  • Describe synaptic plasticity (short-term vs. long-term) and explain the Hebbian learning rule.

 

Last update: Šebková Nataša, RNDr., Ph.D. (27.01.2026)
 
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