SubjectsSubjects(version: 978)
Course, academic year 2025/2026
   
Histology/Cytology - MB150P77A
Title: Histologie/Cytologie
Czech title: Histologie/Cytologie
Guaranteed by: Department of Cell Biology (31-151)
Faculty: Faculty of Science
Actual: from 2025
Semester: summer
E-Credits: 4
Examination process: summer s.:
Hours per week, examination: summer s.:3/0, Ex [HT]
Capacity: unlimited
Min. number of students: unlimited
4EU+: no
Virtual mobility / capacity: no
State of the course: taught
Language: Czech
Note: enabled for web enrollment
Guarantor: prof. RNDr. Jan Černý, Ph.D.
Teacher(s): prof. RNDr. Jan Černý, Ph.D.
Incompatibility : MB110P71, MB150P77E
Is co-requisite for: MB150C27A
Is incompatible with: MB150P77E, MB110P71
In complex pre-requisite: MB110P75
Annotation -
Basic histological course covering both methodological approaches and factual variability of cell types
of multicellular animal bodies with emphasis on human and mouse model. Emphasis is placed on
functional connections, including pathological conditions, dynamics of tissue systems.
Last update: Šebková Nataša, RNDr., Ph.D. (25.02.2021)
Literature - Czech

Junqueira's Basic Histology: Text and Atlas by Anthony Mescher

Histology by Michael H. Ross

Wheater's Functional Histology: A Text and Colour Atlas by Barbara Young BSc Med Sc

Last update: Šebková Nataša, RNDr., Ph.D. (21.03.2019)
Requirements to the exam - Czech

Během zkoušky budou ověřovány znalosti z obsahu jednotlivých přednášek.

Last update: Šebková Nataša, RNDr., Ph.D. (19.09.2019)
Syllabus -

1. Methods of histological research
2. Cellularity – cellomics
3. Epithelium, neuroepithelium, myoepithelium
4. Connective tissues
5. Muscle tissue
6. Blood and blood elements
7. Nerve and glial cells
8. Spermatogenesis, oogenesis, sperm and egg
9. Stem cell concept
10. Tissue and organ engineering
11. Histology of sensory organs

Last update: Šebková Nataša, RNDr., Ph.D. (25.02.2021)
Learning outcomes -

Histology/Cytology — LEARNING OUTCOMES

 

A. Core principles of functional histology

After completing the course, the student will be able to:

  1. Define a stem cell and distinguish stem cell types by potency (toti-, pluri-, multi-, oligo-, bi-, unipotent) and by origin (embryonic, adult, induced).
  2. Explain the principle of polarised cell division and describe the role of the niche in maintaining stemness.
  3. List and briefly explain key stem cell hallmarks (e.g., telomerase activity, autophagy, mitochondrial silencing, absence of circadian rhythmicity).
  4. Describe the biological logic of cellular turnover in different tissues and justify why some tissues require stem cell–based renewal.
  5. Using examples, explain the differences between multipotent, oligopotent, bipotent and unipotent stem cells (e.g., haematopoiesis, pericytes/MSC, small intestine crypts, CNS, mammary gland, thymus, epidermis, spermatogenesis).
  6. Explain the principle of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) and describe the role of Yamanaka transcription factors in reprogramming.
  7. Describe the concept of organoids, provide examples of their use, and explain how they differ from conventional cell cultures.
  8. Explain the principle of blastocyst complementation using a specific example and discuss its potential for transplantation medicine.
  9. Define microchimerism, distinguish its major types, and explain how this phenomenon can be experimentally tracked (e.g., using fluorescent proteins).
  10. Define and illustrate examples of metaplasia and explain its relationship to tissue adaptation and pathology.

 

B. Epithelia and their functional organisation

After completing the course, the student will be able to:

  1. List key characteristics of epithelia and explain why epithelia are functionally essential despite their relatively small contribution to body mass.
  2. Describe epithelial cell polarity and distinguish apical vs. basolateral membrane domains, including their functional consequences.
  3. Explain why the basal lamina is essential for maintaining epithelial polarity.
  4. Classify epithelia by layering and cell shape (simple vs. stratified; squamous/cuboidal/columnar) and provide typical locations for each type.
  5. Differentiate and describe specialised epithelia (pseudostratified, transitional, trabecular, reticular) and justify their functional logic.
  6. Describe the mesothelium, identify its locations, and explain examples of epithelial metaplasia (e.g., smoking-related airway metaplasia; Barrett’s oesophagus).
  7. Compare epithelial renewal rates in selected epithelia and provide an example of an epithelium with low regenerative capacity (e.g., corneal endothelium).
  8. Explain the evolutionary and embryological origin of epithelia and discuss their relationships to other cell types (myoepithelium, neuroepithelium).
  9. Describe EMT/MET processes and state their significance in regeneration, development and cancer biology.
  10. Differentiate major apical specialisations (microvilli vs. cilia) and assign their cytoskeletal basis (actin vs. tubulin).
  11. Explain the function of the primary cilium and provide an example of a ciliopathy (e.g., Kartagener syndrome), including a basic pathophysiological explanation.
  12. Explain epithelial roles in water transport and apply aquaporin regulation to a specific example (e.g., ADH in the kidney; diabetes insipidus).
  13. Describe the molecular mechanism of cystic fibrosis as a disorder of epithelial ion and water transport.

 

C. Glandular epithelium and secretion

After completing the course, the student will be able to:

  1. Differentiate exocrine vs. endocrine glands and explain how some organs combine both functions (e.g., hepatocytes).
  2. Classify glands as unicellular vs. multicellular and provide examples including functional relevance.
  3. Differentiate secretion modes (merocrine, apocrine, holocrine) and match them to specific organs or situations.
  4. Describe the function and distribution of goblet cells in the intestinal epithelium and explain their contribution to barrier function.
  5. Explain key features of the mammary gland (secretion type, development, involution/proliferative cycle) and discuss its relationship to stem cells and organoids.
  6. Describe myoepithelial cells, identify their locations, and explain their role in expelling secretions.
  7. Describe tear film composition and explain why it results from the combined contribution of multiple glandular structures.

 

 

D. Gastrointestinal tract as a composite organ

After completing the course, the student will be able to:

  1. Describe the layered organisation of the gastrointestinal tract and explain why the GI tract is a “composite organ”.
  2. List major intestinal epithelial cell types and describe their functions (enterocytes, goblet cells, Paneth cells, enteroendocrine cells, tuft cells, M cells, etc.).
  3. Explain the functional logic of crypts and villi in the small intestine and describe the localisation and fate of intestinal stem cells.
  4. Compare epithelia of the oral cavity, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and rectum with respect to structure, mechanical load and absorptive function.
  5. Explain the principle of surface enlargement in the GI tract and apply it to specific regions of the digestive tube.
  6. Describe cellular and functional specialisation of the gastric mucosa and explain the role of parietal cells in generating low pH.

 

E. Endothelium and the vessel wall

After completing the course, the student will be able to:

  1. Describe the structure of the vessel wall and explain cooperation between endothelium, smooth muscle and connective tissue.
  2. Provide examples of avascular tissues (e.g., cornea, hyaline cartilage) and justify how their nutrition is ensured.
  3. Explain the origin of vascular valves as endothelial derivatives.
  4. Differentiate types of fenestrated endothelium and provide examples (e.g., liver, including the role of Kupffer cells).
  5. Explain the principle of primary urine filtration as a result of cooperation between endothelium and podocytes.
  6. Describe the blood–brain barrier and explain the role of astrocytes in its function.
  7. Explain angiogenesis under hypoxia (HIF/VEGF) and differentiate arterial vs. venous endothelium (ephrin-B2 vs. ephrin-B4).
  8. Describe atherosclerosis pathogenesis as an inflammatory process and explain foam cell formation and histological changes of the vessel wall.

 

 

 

 

F. Epidermis and cutaneous derivatives

After completing the course, the student will be able to:

  1. Describe the basic layers of the skin (epidermis, dermis, hypodermis) and compare thin vs. thick skin.
  2. List epidermal cell types, describe their localisation, and explain their functions.
  3. Explain the role of unipotent epidermal stem cells and describe keratinocyte differentiation into corneocytes including renewal kinetics.
  4. Explain tattoo persistence based on the role of tissue-resident macrophages.
  5. Describe Merkel cells and explain their links to tumour biology (including Merkel cell polyomavirus).
  6. Describe Langerhans cells and explain their function in cutaneous immune surveillance.
  7. Explain melanocyte origin from the neural crest and describe regulation of melanogenesis (melanosomes; transport to keratinocytes).
  8. Explain causes of hair greying and discuss the role of melanosomal pH.
  9. Differentiate pigmentation disorders (e.g., albinism, vitiligo, Waardenburg syndromes) and describe their biological basis at cellular and genetic levels.
  10. Explain principles of skin mechanics (papillary ridges, Langer’s lines) in relation to connective tissue.
  11. Explain the principle of cytokeratinopathies and apply it to epidermolysis bullosa simplex, including consideration of potential gene-therapy approaches.

 

G. Neuroepithelia and sensory systems

After completing the course, the student will be able to:

  1. Explain why neuroepithelium is functionally and developmentally derived from polarised epithelium.
  2. Provide examples of “sensory receptor” expression in non-sensory tissues (e.g., olfactory receptors in sperm; opsins in melanocytes; chemosensory receptors in tuft cells).
  3. Describe organisation of the olfactory neuroepithelium, explain the “one receptor per cell” principle, and describe axonal projections to the olfactory bulb (bulbus olfactorius).
  4. Explain combinatorial receptor coding in olfaction and discuss interspecies differences.
  5. Describe gustatory neuroepithelium (papillae, taste bud, taste pore) and differentiate receptor cell types and receptor classes.
  6. Describe cochlear functional morphology and explain hair cells as mechanoreceptors.
  7. Explain mechanotransduction and provide an example of a genetic cause of hearing impairment (e.g., connexin mutations).
  8. Describe the functional logic of ocular histology/anatomy (cornea, lens, iris, retina, pigmented epithelium) in relation to light processing.
  9. Explain regeneration of 11-cis-retinal and describe the role of pigmented epithelium and Müller cells.
  10. Differentiate rods vs. cones, explain outer segment origin from cilia, and describe their distribution within the retina.
  11. Explain photoreceptor signal transduction and discuss species-specific differences in vision (including tetrachromacy).

 

H. Muscle tissue

After completing the course, the student will be able to:

  1. Differentiate muscle tissue types (skeletal, cardiac, smooth) and describe their main structural and functional differences.
  2. Describe sarcomere structure and explain the roles of actin, myosin, titin and nebulin in contractility.
  3. Explain the myosin cycle in relation to ATP hydrolysis and conformational change of myosin.
  4. Describe skeletal muscle energetics (aerobic vs. anaerobic) and explain roles of creatine phosphate and glycogen.
  5. Describe connective tissue sheaths of muscle (endo-, peri-, epimysium) and explain their mechanical function.
  6. Explain regulatory mechanisms of skeletal muscle contraction (neuromuscular junction, T-tubules, Ca²⁺ regulation).
  7. Explain the pathophysiology of myasthenia gravis at the level of acetylcholine and its receptor.
  8. Compare fast vs. slow muscle fibres and state their functional characteristics.
  9. Explain skeletal muscle regeneration and describe the role of satellite cells.
  10. Describe Duchenne muscular dystrophy and explain why it is a monogenic disease with a severe phenotype.
  11. Explain regulation of muscle mass (myostatin and its receptor; anabolic vs. catabolic pathways).
  12. Describe cardiac muscle specialisations (intercalated discs, Purkinje fibres) and explain their functional significance.
  13. Explain cardiomyocyte hypertrophy in relation to regulation of cell size and nuclear number.
  14. Discuss cardiac muscle regeneration and evaluate evidence for the existence of adult cardiac stem cells.
  15. Describe localisation and function of smooth muscle (myometrium, GI tract, vessels) and differentiate its types within the digestive system.
  16. Explain regulation of smooth muscle contraction (MLCK) and describe the contractile apparatus (dense bodies, dense plaques).
  17. Describe autonomic innervation of smooth muscle (varicosities, gap junctions) and apply it to the iris as an example (sympathetic vs. parasympathetic control).

 

I. Connective tissue and extracellular matrix

After completing the course, the student will be able to:

  1. Explain how extracellular matrix determines mechanical properties of tissues and provide examples of ECM-related pathologies (Ehlers–Danlos, Marfan) or fibrosis.
  2. Differentiate major ECM molecule classes (collagens, elastin, proteoglycans) and explain the principle of elastin elasticity.
  3. Differentiate fibroblast, fibrocyte and mesenchymal stem cell with respect to function and phenotype.
  4. Classify connective tissue into proper connective tissue, supporting connective tissue, and connective tissue with special properties, and provide examples.
  5. Compare loose vs. dense connective tissue, describe their cellular composition, and state typical locations (lamina propria, dermis).
  6. Describe connective tissue sheaths of muscles and nerves (endo-, peri-, epimysium; endo-, peri-, epineurium) and explain their functional significance.
  7. Differentiate adipose tissue types (white, brown, beige, pink; uni- vs. multilocular) and state their functions and localisation.
  8. Explain “beiging” of white adipose tissue and discuss effects of temperature and depot-specific differences.
  9. Explain the difference between metabolically healthy and pathological obesity and state the role of leptin/ghrelin in energy homeostasis regulation.
  10. Interpret an example of epigenetic regulation of adipogenesis (e.g., “hunger winter”, agouti mouse) and explain transgenerational links.
  11. Explain thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue (uncoupling proteins) and compare its properties with muscle (innervation, action potential).

 

J. Cartilage, bone and teeth

After completing the course, the student will be able to:

  1. Differentiate cartilage types (hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage) and explain the role of proteoglycans in hydration and mechanical properties.
  2. Describe chondroblasts and chondrocytes, their localisation in lacunae, and explain the significance of the perichondrium.
  3. Explain why cartilage is poorly vascularised and evaluate consequences for regeneration in adulthood.
  4. Describe intervertebral disc pathology (prolapse) based on fibrocartilage properties.
  5. Differentiate chondroma, chondrosarcoma and inflammatory changes of cartilage.
  6. Explain achondroplasia as a consequence of FGFR3 mutation and provide relevant animal examples.
  7. Compare intramembranous vs. endochondral ossification.
  8. List major bone cell types (osteoblast, osteocyte, osteoclast) and describe their functions.
  9. Describe bone tissue composition and explain contributions of organic vs. mineral components.
  10. Explain hormonal regulation of mineralisation (calcitonin vs. PTH).
  11. Describe the osteon and Haversian system and localise individual bone cell types within bone.
  12. Explain bone remodelling and apply it to changes under long-term microgravity (astronauts).
  13. Describe osteoclasts as syncytial cells derived from monocytes and explain their role in remodelling, skull growth and tooth eruption.
  14. Compare osteoporosis and osteopetrosis in terms of cellular mechanism and phenotype.
  15. Differentiate dentin vs. enamel, describe their cellular origin (ameloblasts vs. odontoblasts), and explain the structural logic of their deposition.
  16. Explain why ameloblasts are absent in adults and discuss consequences for enamel regeneration.

 

K. Blood, haematopoiesis and lymphoid organs

After completing the course, the student will be able to:

  1. Interpret key quantitative blood parameters (cell counts vs. cell mass) and compare erythrocyte vs. neutrophil turnover.
  2. List main functions of blood and describe its cellular composition.
  3. Describe the mechanism of erythrocyte enucleation and differentiate developmental stages (myelocyte/reticulocyte in the context of erythropoiesis as defined in the course).
  4. Compare fetal vs. adult haemoglobin and explain differences between mammalian and non-mammalian vertebrate erythrocytes (nucleated vs. enucleated).
  5. Describe ontogenetic waves of haematopoiesis and explain their significance.
  6. Explain pathophysiology of sickle cell anaemia and thalassaemia as haemoglobin disorders.
  7. Explain haematocrit regulation and interpret selected examples of adaptive mechanisms (EPO/EPO-R, high-altitude adaptations, etc.).
  8. Answer and defend whether erythrocytes are “living” cells based on cell structure and function.
  9. Describe platelet formation from megakaryocytes (including ploidy and localisation) and differentiate the terms platelet/trombocyt vs. thrombocyte.
  10. Explain platelet roles in haemostasis and tissue regeneration and provide examples of platelet interactions with microorganisms.
  11. Differentiate granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) and describe their granules and functional specialisation.
  12. Describe neutrophil migration into inflamed tissues, chemotaxis and phagocytosis of opsonised bacteria, and explain oxidative burst.
  13. Explain NETosis and evaluate when it is beneficial vs. harmful for the organism.
  14. Explain eosinophil roles in anti-parasitic responses and interpret eosinophilia.
  15. Explain basophil degranulation, describe their Ig receptor, and compare basophils vs. mast cells.
  16. Describe differentiation of monocytes into macrophages and dendritic cells and cite osteoclasts as an example of a monocyte-derived lineage.
  17. Differentiate tissue-resident macrophages vs. macrophages continuously replenished from monocytes and explain macrophage polarisation (microbicidal vs. reparative).
  18. Explain the role of dendritic cells as professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and justify why they bridge innate and adaptive immunity.

 

Last update: Šebková Nataša, RNDr., Ph.D. (27.01.2026)
 
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